This Week In Science

HIGGS BOSON SEEN AT WORK FOR FIRST TIME

First they found the Higgs boson using the world’s largest atom smasher. Now, thanks to observations of an ultra-rare particle interaction, scientists have more evidence that the Higgs does what it’s supposed to do.

For forty years physicists have been using the standard model of particle physics to explain how forces of nature operate. And an essential feature is the Higgs boson, a particle that’s thought to provide mass to all matter. As New Scientist explains it, the particles that make us up have mass, and without the Higgs, these particles would be massless, like photons. Its discovery in 2012 might be considered the crowning achievement of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), and it greatly bolstered physicists confidence in the model they'd been working with.

But finding the Higgs isn't the end of the story. For one thing, some physicists are chasing even greater levels of confidence in the standard model; for another, the standard model isn't a complete description of the way the subatomic world works. "The Standard Model has so far survived all tests, but we know that it is incomplete because there are observations of dark matter, dark energy, and the antimatter/matter asymmetry in the universe that can't be explained by the Standard Model," says Marc-André Pleier of Brookhaven National Laboratory in a news release.

It took years of collisions to confirm the Higgs discovery, and the mountain of data LHC has created hides more secrets for physicists to uncover. Take, for example, collisions of two particles called W bosons. When they collide, they scatter in a way that can tell physicists whether the Higgs does its job of imparting mass to matter in the way they expect -- and possibly eliminate some of the competing additional theories.

The problem? These interactions are harder to find than even the Higgs itself. “Only about one in 100 trillion proton-proton collisions would produce one of these events,” Pleier explains. “We looked through billions of proton-proton collisions produced at the LHC for a signature of these events -- decay products that allow us to infer like Sherlock Holmes what happened in the event.” He and the ATLAS collaboration observed 34 of these events.

To test the Higgs mechanism, the scientists compared distributions of decay products of the W scattering process -- how often particular products are observed at a particular energy and geometrical configuration.

“It’s like a fingerprint,” Pleier says. “We have a predicted fingerprint and we have the fingerprint we measure. If the fingerprints match, we know that the Higgs does its job of mass generation the way it should.” Sure enough, the data indicate that the Higgs is working as expected. The work will be published in Physical Review Letters.

Read more at http://www.iflscience.com/physics/higgs-boson-seen-work-first-time#WmP0e1kze0jcXY1F.99

SINGLE TREE GROWS 40 DIFFERENT TYPES OF FRUIT

In an ongoing series on hybridizing fruit trees, Syracuse University sculptor Sam Van Aken’s Tree of 40 Fruit is true to its name. Most of the year, it looks pretty ordinary, but in the spring, the tree blossoms display various tones of pink, crimson, and white. Then, from July through October, it bears 40 different types of stone fruit, including almonds, apricots, cherries, nectarines, peaches, and plums.

The feat is accomplished by grafting together several different varieties, including native fruit, heirlooms, and antiques, some of which are centuries-old, Aken tells Epicurious.

His main source is an orchard at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, which he leased when he heard the orchard was to be torn down. After developing a timeline of when each of the 250 varieties blossom in relation to each other, he would graft a few onto the root structure of a single tree. When his “working tree” was about two years old, he would add more varieties onto the tree as separate branches -- a technique called “chip grafting,” Science Alert explains. A sliver that includes a bud is inserted into an incision in the working tree and then taped in place. After it heals over the winter, the branch becomes just another normal branch on the tree, to be pruned as usual.

So far, 16 of these Trees of 40 Fruit have been grown, each taking about five years. He picked stone fruits because they’ve got a lot of diversity and they’re inter-compatible. And a bit of garlic and peppermint repellents keep deer away.

“By grafting these different varieties onto the tree in a certain order I can essentially sculpt how the tree is to blossom,” he says. “I've been told by people that have [a tree] at their home that it provides the perfect amount and perfect variety of fruit.”

Read more at http://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/single-tree-grows-40-kinds-fruit#9PPX80AcEpXtvlfp.99

NEW STUDY SUGGEST THAT ONLY 8.2% OF OUR GENOME IS FUNCTIONAL

In contrast to earlier estimates that suggested as much as 80% of our DNA has some function, University of Oxford scientists have found that a mere 8.2% of the human genome is presently functional.

Our DNA is made up of 3.2 billion base pairs- the chemical building blocks found in chromosomes that are strung together to form our genome. It’s a pretty impressive number, but how much of this DNA is functional? That has been a subject of great interest recently given revelations about the vast amount of “junk” DNA, or DNA that does not encode proteins, that seems to be present. In fact, almost 99% of the human genome does not encode proteins.

Back in 2012, scientists from the ENCODE (Encyclopedia of DNA Elements) project claimed that 80% of our DNA has some biochemical function. However, many scientists were not satisfied with this assertion given that the word “function” is hazy and too broad. In particular, DNA activity does not necessarily have a functional consequence. Researchers therefore needed to demonstrate that the activity is important.

To do this, Oxford researchers looked at which parts of our genome have avoided accumulating mutations over the last 130 million years. This is because slow rates of genomic evolution are an indication that a sequence is important, i.e. it has a certain function that needs to be retained. In particular, they were looking for insertions or deletions of DNA sequences within various different mammalian species, from humans and horses to guinea pigs and dogs. While this can occur randomly throughout the sequence, the researchers would not expect this to happen to such an extent in stretches that natural selection is acting to preserve.

The researchers found that 8.2% of our DNA is presently functional; the rest is leftover material that has been subjected to large losses or gains over time. However, they also note that not all of this 8.2% is equally important. As mentioned, only 1% of our DNA encodes the proteins that make up our bodies and play critical roles in biological processes.

It’s believed that the remaining 7% plays regulatory roles, switching genes on and off in response to environmental factors.

“The proteins produced are virtually the same in every cell in our body when we are born to when we die,” lead author Chris Rands said in a news-release. “Which of them are switched on, where in the body and at what point in time, needs to be controlled—and it is the 7% that is doing this job.”

Another interesting finding was that while the protein-coding genes were well conserved across the different mammalian species investigated, the regulatory regions experienced a high turnover, with pieces of DNA being added and lost frequently over time. While this dynamic evolution was unexpected, the majority of changes in the genome occurred within the so-called “junk” DNA.

Intriguingly, it was discovered that only 2.2% of our genome is functional and shared with mice. But according to the researchers, that doesn’t necessarily mean we are that different and it’s difficult to tell what explains our differences as species.

“We are not so special. Our fundamental biology is very similar,” said co-author Chris Ponting. “Every mammal has approximately the same amount of functional DNA, and approximately the same distribution of functional DNA that is highly important and less important."

Read more at http://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/new-study-suggests-only-82-our-genome-functional#iRDslRKwBtWVUQo9.99

SCIENTISTS DEVELOP BIOPLASTIC FROM FOOD SCRAPS

Plastic has been an amazing resource for humans, but it has also generated a considerable amount of waste that poses a serious threat to wildlife. There are biodegradable plant-based plastics available, but there are some significant drawbacks. However, Ilker Bayer from the Italian Institute of Technology led a team that explored an alternative method of producing bioplastics that utilizes unwanted food scraps. The paper has been published in the journal Macromolecules.

Currently available bioplastics are typically based on starches, cellulose, and biopolymers. Many, but not all, are biodegradable and are better for wildlife than typical plastic products, though there are some drawbacks. Plant starches are derived from peas, corn, and potatoes, which utilizes crops that could be used for food. Additionally, it takes several steps to modify the plant products into a usable plastic, which takes longer and uses more energy than conventional plastic.

For this study, Bayer’s team focused on modifying the process of manufacturing cellophane from cellulose, which is found in plant cell walls. The cellulose is passed through a series of acidic and alkali baths to change its properties, bleached, and has glycerine added to keep the product flexible.

Rather than use cellulose from wood or hemp, the researchers utilized food scraps including cocoa pod husks, parsley waste, rice hulls, and spinach stems. The chemical treatment process of the plant material was also completely overhauled. Instead of a long series of baths, Bayer’s team soaked the plant material in trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and found that it was ready to be shaped without any additional chemical treatments.

As an added bonus, the resultant plastic also kept certain properties of the plant from which it was derived. In addition to coloring, the plant type also influenced the integrity of the plastic making it suitable for different uses. Spinach-based bioplastic was rubbery and flexible, while the rice-derived plastic was more rigid. The researchers also speculate that bioplastic created from cinnamon could be naturally antibacterial.

While it is incredible that Bayer’s lab could make a product from agricultural waste scraps that rivals the quality of traditional plastics, there might be some difficulty in scaling it up to make it an economically-viable option. Though traditional bioplastics might require a great deal more energy and resources, it looks like it will still be the cheaper route for the foreseeable future. Until a more environmentally-friendly plastic alternative exists, please cut down on the amount of plastic generated and recycle whenever possible.

[Hat tip: New Scientist]

Read more at http://www.iflscience.com/chemistry/scientists-develop-bioplastic-food-scraps#WitpYuh16L4wVaU3.99

CAT PARASITE MODIFIED INTO AN EFFECTIVE CANCER VACCINE

t has been estimated that a third of the world’s population is affected by Toxoplasma gondii, a parasite that prefers living in feline intestines. While it produces no or mild symptoms for most people, it can be fatal for those who are seriously immunocompromised. Scientists have found a way to make the parasite’s actions work for good by reprogramming it to team up with the immune system to attack cancer cells. The research was conducted by David Bzik of Dartmouth University.

"We know biologically this parasite has figured out how to stimulate the exact immune responses you want to fight cancer,” Bzik said in a press release.

Cancer cells can disrupt the immune response for self-preservation purposes. In the presence of T. gondii, those responses are restored and the body will create cytotoxic T cells as well as natural killer cells in order to fight off infection, and these cells are also responsible for fighting cancer cells. Of course, it would be too risky to inject T. gondii into a cancer patient, researchers needed to find the best way to alter it.

Prior research by Bzik indicated that while virulent strains of T. gondii attack cells on the surface, avirulent strains are actually ingested by phagocytes. Instead of getting digested, they will invade the cell from the inside and then continue to divide and spread once it has escaped the cell. This “trojan horse” approach was an attractive opportunity to modify the parasite in order to fight cancer more effectively.

A gene that is critical to the parasite’s ability to self-replicate was removed, creating a safe version that can trigger the desired immune response without posing any threat of its own. Bzik and his colleague Barbara Fox have named it “cps.”

"The biology of this organism is inherently different from other microbe-based immunotherapeutic strategies that typically just tickle immune cells from the outside," Fox explained. "By gaining preferential access to the inside of powerful innate immune cell types, our mutated strain of T. gondii reprograms the natural power of the immune system to clear tumor cells and cancer."

Cps was injected into mice that had lethal forms of ovarian cancer and melanoma and resulted in high rates of survival. In the future, cps could be a very potent treatment or vaccine for cancer patients that could even be highly personalized. Cells would be taken from the patient and exposed to cps in vitro, creating the desired immune response. The cps-containing cells would then be returned to the patient to fight the cancer and could even provide immunity against recurrence of that cancer type.

"Cps stimulates amazingly effective immunotherapy against cancers, superior to anything seen before," said Bzik. "The ability of cps to communicate in different and unique ways with the cancer and special cells of the immune system breaks the control that cancer has leveraged over the immune system.”

Though the testing has gone well in the mice, human trials aren’t ready to begin. Researchers need to learn more about the mechanism that allows it to work so well in addition to identifying all molecular targets.

Read more at http://www.iflscience.com/health-and-medicine/cat-parasite-modified-effective-cancer-vaccine#suTwQL8KLkVC9GdQ.99

SOUNDS OF SPACE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-MmWeZHsQzs#t=103

Despite what you’ve heard, there are actual sounds in space.

Due to the virtual vacuum in space, it’s not sound like you and I experience it (that being waves pulsing through the air), but there are electromagnetic waves that pulsate at the same wavelength as the sound waves we can hear.

Instruments on several NASA probes including Voyager have recorded these waves and translated them into a sound that we can hear, and they are all kinds of spooky. This is the kind of thing you hear in a movie just before someone opens a door in a dark hallway.

So, take a listen to the true nature of the solar system. And sleep tight.

My niece, for her birthday, wanted to look at Saturn through the telescope that I set up for her at my house. The night was a full moon (not great for looking at deep sky objects but still fine for planets) and while she was looking at it with her dad, I was playing the sounds of Saturn for her.

Quite eerie but down right fascinating at the same time.

Thats really cool. I am going to do something like that for my son.

SIMPLE BLOOD TEST COULD DETECT ALL TYPES OF CANCER

Researchers in the U.K. think we’re getting close to a simple blood test that can diagnose all cancers. Early results show how it can identify cancer and pre-cancerous conditions in patients with melanoma, colon cancer, and lung cancer.

By helping doctors rule out certain diseases in people with symptoms, the test could save time and money while preventing the need for painful, invasive procedures like biopsies.

Known as the Lymphocyte Genome Sensitivity (LGS) assay, the test looks at white blood cells called lymphocytes and the damage caused to their DNA when subjected to different intensities of ultraviolet light, which causes damage to genetic material. “White blood cells are part of the body’s natural defense system. We know that they are under stress when they are fighting cancer or other diseases, so I wondered whether anything measurable could be seen if we put them under further stress with UVA light,” Diana Anderson from the University of Bradford explains in a news release.

Anderson and colleagues examined the lymphocyte responses in 208 people: 20 with melanoma, 34 with colon cancer, 4 with lung cancer, 18 with suspected melanoma, 28 with polyposis, and 10 with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and 94 healthy volunteers. The samples were coded, randomized, and then exposed to UVA light through five different depths of agar.

They found a clear distinction between the damage to the white blood cells from patients with cancer, patients with pre-cancerous conditions, and healthy patients. “People with cancer have DNA which is more easily damaged by ultraviolet light than other people,” Anderson says, “so the test shows the sensitivity to damage of all the DNA -- the genome -- in a cell.”

UVA damage shows up in the form of pieces of DNA pulled in an electric field towards the positive end of the field; this creates a tail like the one you’d see trailing a comet. In the LGS test, the longer the comet-like tail, the more DNA damage. The measurements correlated to those patients who were ultimately diagnosed with cancer (58), those with pre-cancerous conditions (56), and those who don’t have cancer (94).

A clinical trial is currently underway to test the effectiveness of the LGS test at predicting which patients would benefit from a colonoscopy.

The work was published in the FASEB Journal last week

Read more at http://www.iflscience.com/health-and-medicine/simple-blood-test-could-detect-all-types-cancer#Er4DyxelXKlfkt3D.99